第一章
1.word : 1简单意义：a word is a minimal unit/form in/of a sentence 2.完整意义：a word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound, meaning and
syntactic function.
2.vocabulary 定义四个要素：1.refer to the total number of the words in a language.2.it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period.3.refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person. 4个要素：language, time, space, person.
3.sound and form 1.关系：the symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional. 2.more and more different 原因：1,the number of alphabet cannot describe the English sounds one by one.2, sounds develop faster than the written form.3.the scribes deliberately change the written form for being easily recognized.4.the printing machine fixed the written form.5.borrowed words make the gap wider.
4.motivation分类：1.onomatopec motivation.(Refers to the motivated aspect of motivation which means the words are created by imitation the natural sounds or noise. 2. morphological motivation (refers to the motivated aspect of motivation which means the words created by using existing language materials ,as roots, affixes, etc).3.semantic motivation(refers to the motivated aspect of motivation in which the new meanings are given to existing words by
mental assaiations.4.etymological motivation(refers to the motivated aspect of motivation by which the new meanings can directly tell the origin of the word.)
4.word meaning 分类： 4. “All national character” is the most important of all the features that may differentiate words of common use from all others.
basic word stock基础词汇：1.all national character(全民性，必须有)2.stability 3.productivity 4.polysemy(一词多义)5.collocability(可搭配性) –
5．Nonbasic vocabulary. 1。terminology，术语(this refers to the formal words that used by scientists in their research.)2.jargon，行话(refers to the informal words used by people of the same trades as workers, farmers, technicians, etc. in their work.)3.slang，俚语(refers to the informal words that usually used by young people in their daily activity. The words of this category are usually coined from a
normal or daily-life words and are short-lived, otherwise they will become
idioms.)4argot，黑话。(refers to the informal words that are usually used by criminals in their “work”(communication inside the group)5.dialectal words方
言词。(refers to the informal words that are used in English by people from the same country.)6.archaism，古语(refers to informal or learned words used by scholars in their literary research)6.neologism，新词
6.content words 和 functional words的区别。Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words. (They are nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals.)Functional words do not have notions of their own, they are known as form words.区别：functional words are the words
that are more important in use in grammatical meaning than in lexical meaning; content word, are the words that are full both in grammatical and lexical meaning. Pronoun既不是实词也不是虚词。
7.borrowed words.定义：borrowed words are the words borrowed from other languages after the settlement of Anglo-Saxon into England. 特征。(1. Neutral in style) 2 frequent in use. 1) denizens.（are the borrowed words borrowed in the
early stage of English history and are well assimilated into English.）2) aliens
(are the borrowed words that still keep their original sound and spelling) 3) translation loans (are the borrowed words that borrowed in 2 steps: first
translating the word then borrowing the word into English.) 4. Semantic loans
(are the borrowed words that borrowed in 2 steps: first borrowing the meaning of foreign language and then pat the meaning into existing English words.)
Native words: Anglo-Saxon words: native words are not native in fact but words brought to Britain in the fifth century by German tribes: the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes, thus known as Anglo-Saxon words. (11)
第二单元
1. The five Romance languages, namely, Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian and Roumanian.(finally comes to the Germanic family language). First, we have
4 northern European languages (Scandinavian language): Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish,+ then comes to 4( German, Dutch,, Flemish and English.)languages.
2. Development: 1, Old English(450-1150): 1.settlement of Anglo-Saxon-----Anglo-Saxon dialects-----5th century-----daily life word. 2. Introduction of Roman Catholic Church-----Latin-----6th century----daily life
words and religious words.3.invasion of Vikings-----Scandinavians------9th century----daily life and military words.2.Middle English (1150-1500): 1.norman conquest: French---12th century----daily life and political words. Latin----12th century -----academic and scientific words.2.Foreign trade----Dutch----15th century-----foreign trade words.3.Modern English (1500-1700-up to the present): 1.Renaissance: ----Latin, Greek. ----16th century----academic, scientific, and literary words.2.industray revolution----all the languages in the world-----18th century.----grammer,analytic.
3.英语影响的语种：Latin, Greek, French, Scandivian.
第三章
1.morpheme的简单概念和完整概念
简单定义：a morpheme is a smallest, meaningful unit in a sentence. 完整定义 :a morpheme is a smallest, meaningful unit of a language. 2.allomorph的概念：an allomorph refers to a member of a set of morphs, which represent one morpheme.
3. Free and bound morphemes. A free morpheme is a morpheme which is independent of other morphemes and happens to be a simple word. Bound morpheme is a morpheme which is dependent of other morphemes and to be bound to other morphemes to form words.
4. Root, stem and base. A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. A stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in iron or of two morphemes as in a compound like handcuff.
(Word form to which inflectional affixes can be attached). A base is a word form to which any kind of affixes(both derivational and inflectional can be attached)如果是stem就一定是base. Nation (root, stem. base) national (stem, base) internationalist (stem, base)
Suffixation: inflectional affixes a derivational affixes
第四章
1.affixation分两大类：affixation is the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to bases. This process is also known as derivation, by which new words are derived from old or base forms. The words created in this way are called derivations. According to the positions affixes occupy in words, affixation falls into two subcategories: prefixation and suffixation.
2. Compounds can be written open, solid, hyphenated, according to dictionary.
compounding 的四个特点：1.phonological features. In compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first constituent whereas in noun phrases the second element is generally accented if there is only one stress. In cases where there are two stresses, the compound has the primary stress on the first element and the secondary stress, if only, on the second, whereas the opposite is true of the free phrases. BUT, these accentual patterns of compounds are not absolute. Sometimes, the primary stress may also fall on the second constituent as bottle-green as well as in combining –form compounds, socio-linguistic, phycho-analysis.2.semantic features. Compounds differ from free phrases in their semantic”one-wordness”,
i.e. a single semantic unit even though they may be written open. Every compound should express a single idea just as one word. For instance, a green hand is an “inexperienced person”, not a hand that is green in color; nevertheless, a lot of compounds are transparent, that is, the meaning can be obtained from the separate elements of compounds like disaster-related, washing machine. 3.
Grammatical features. The one-wordness of compounds can be seen in the way
the expressions are handled morphologically. They tend to fill a single grammatical slot in a sentence, for example, that of a verb, a noun, or an adjective. For example, bad-mouth can be used as a verb,e.g ‘he bad-mouthed me’. 4. Orthographical features. In most cases, compounds are written either ‘solid’ or
‘hyphenated’ as mentioned earlier, thus easy to recognize. But spelling conversations are not often dependable because as illustrated above some compounds can be written in all three forms, e.g. flowerpot, flower-pot, flower pot. Comparatively, Britain speakers tend to hyphenate compounds while Americans like to compounds like free phrases.
3.conversion 定义. Conversation is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.
4.blending 定义.blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. Words formed as such are called blends or pormanteau words. For example, flush is the combination of flash and blush. Similarly, smog is the result of putting smoke and fog together. Breakfast + lunch=brunch
5.clipping 定义. Clipping is the formation of new words by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead. For example, plane and exam are sometimes used in place of aeroplane, and examination respectively.
6. Acronymy 定义（is one of the minor ways in forming new words, by which new words are created by using initial letters of composite names of social and political organizations or phrases used as technical terms. Words formed in this way are called acronyms, which can be subdivided into initialisms and acronyms depending on the pronunciation of the words.
Catalogue: initialisms and acronyms
7. Initialisms are acronyms which are sounded letter by letter.
8. word-formation is one of the minor in word formation by which new words are created by removing imagined or supposed suffixes away from already used
words.
9. Back-formation is one of the minor ways in forming new words, by which new words are created by removing and imagined or supposed suffixes away form words.
第五章
1. Word meaning. “Meaning” is what the form stands for. Related concepts: reference (is a term used in studying word meaning, referring to the relationship between language and the world) 2.concept (is a term used in studying word meaning, referring to the result of human recognition of world which is beyond language) 3.sense (is a term used in studying word mean denoting the
relationships, inside the language, and being defined as meaning of word.)
Sense: 简单定义:sense means the meaning of “meaning”. 完整定义：sense is a term used in studying word meaning by using semantic triangle, which denotes relationships inside language.)
2.motivation定义： is a term used in studying the establishment of the
relationship between linguistic symbols and its meaning.
3. Types of meaning: 1. grammatical meaning(is one of the two parts of a word meaning, which indicates a grammatical relationships or concepts which shows what is the relationships of word with other words in the same sentence)
and lexical meaning( is one of the two parts of word meaning, which is used to describe
everything
in the word.
and
2. Lexical meaning meaning.
classification---------Conceptual meaning associative
(Conceptual meaning is one of the two lexical meaning given in dictionary and forms the core of the word meaning which is acknowledged by all the people
using the language; associative meaning is one of the two lexical meaning which is supplemented the conceptual meaning and comes into being depend on words.)
4.associative meaning its categories: 1.connotative meaning(is one of category of associative meaning which indicates overtones or associations the word has, which is, resulted from conceptual meaning) ,2. stylistic meaning(is one of category of associative meaning, which indicates in what kind of
association or condition the words can be used formal, neutral or informal)
3.affective meaning(is a category of associative meaning, which expresses the
speaker’s attitude towards the person or the thing in a discussion, appreciative or pejorative. 4. Collative meaning (is a category of associative meaning, which
indicates around what kind of words the word can be used).
第六章
1. Polysemy (is a term used in studying sense relations, referring to quality or condition of a word with many interrelated meanings.)
2. Concatenation (is a term used in the development of word meaning,
which is a process in which the primary meaning stands at its head and the other meaning move away from it like a chain until the sense of the first meaning lost.
3. Homonymy (is a term used in studying sense relations, referring to a
quality or condition two or more words the same in sound / or spelling but
quite different in meanings.
4. Types of homonyms: perfect homonyms; partial homonyms (homographs, homophones).
5.synonomy(is a quality or condition of 2 or more words that are traditionally defined as words different in sound and spelling but most nearly this or exactly the same meaning. 6. Types of synonyms 1)absolute synonyms(are exactly the same in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning. 2) Relative synonyms (are the synonyms that are similar /nearly the same in denotation but every embrace different shades of meanings or different degrees of a given quality).
7. antonymy (is a quality or condition of two or more words that are traditionally defined as words opposite in meaning) 1.complementaries are one kind of antonyms which are truly represent oppositeness of meaning that are mutually exclusive and admit no possibility between them.2) contraries are one kind of antonyms that are gradable.3) converses are one kind of antonyms that indicate such a reciprocal social relationship that one of the two can’t be used
without mentioning the other.
8. Hyponomy is a quality or condition of two or more words with meaning of one being included in the other which is more general.
9. Superodinate is one of two classes of hyponymy that is general in meaning and other words with specific meaning are included.
Subordinate is one of two classes of hyponymy that is specific and is included in superordinate in meaning.
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